Head in Syntax

Head in Syntax

Head (kjerne (i en frase)): the most important word in a phrase; the word that carries the main meaning of the phrase and that cannot be taken away. The head of a noun phrase is a noun (or a pronoun); the head of a verb phrase is a verb; the head of an adjective phrase is an adjective; the head of an adverb phrase is an adverb. As regards prepositional phrases neither part of the phrase (preposition + noun phrase) is considered a head, since both parts have to be there in order for there to be a prepositional phrase. Thus no part of it can be said to be the more important one.

A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers - i.e. determinants, adjectives, and any clauses or prepositional phrases that modify the noun. (We will get to clauses in a bit.) Traditionally, the noun is called the head of the noun phrase,  because it determines the syntactic function of the phrase - that is, the phrase acts as if it were a noun.  Examples: "Bob", "the cat in the hat", "a whole other problem", "the man who came to dinner", etc.

The term “head of a construction” has been understood in various ways. The common ground is that the head of a construction is that constituent whose specifications are retained in the construction as a whole (cf. Williams 1981:247); exactly which specifications must be retained for headship to occur is the mooted question.Webster’s 8th, after limiting its definition to “an immediate constituent of a construction that has the same grammatical function as the whole” gives as examples man in “an old man” or “a very old man”. The head at least typically designates the same entity as does the whole construction: “a very old man” is in fact a man. Note as well that team and not football is uncontroversially the head of football team even though both components are nominal and thus would fit Webster’s definition.

Most English compounds are right-headed--e.g. bird is the head of black-bird, since it, and not black, is nominal, and since a black-bird is a bird: similarly ball is the head of soccer-ball, ripe of over-ripe, green of sea-green or blue-green (contrast green-blue), etc.

Head in syntax is traditionally understood as a constituent, which in some sense ‘characterizes’ or ‘dominates’ the whole syntactic construct. Jespersen’s “primary ranking” of words, defined in terms of semantic notion of definition, qualification, or modification; establishing primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. words well reflect this idea, however this does not seem to be the most effective approach.

The initial question is, that what notions must the theory of grammar supply. Three such notions are needed, if we contrast syntax with other components of grammar: semantics, the lexicon, and (inflectional) morphology. The first of these picks out the constituent acting as the semantic argument (as opposed to the semantic functor), the second picks out the subcategorisand (the constituent that is lexically subcategorized), and the third picks out the morphosyntactic locus (the constituent on which inflectional marks will be located). In addition government and concord must also be accounted for, by some constituent being ‘dominant’ - the constituent determining government or the constituent determining concord. These five notions can construct a theory of grammar, consequently granting the independent primitive notion of HEAD unnecessary.

Literary Analysis

Literary Analysis: Terms

Many literature students are expected to be familiar with the basic terms listed below (and discussed in more depth in your text). Keep this study guide with your text. At the beginning of each reading assignment, write the elements of literature pertaining to the particular type of literature at the beginning of the short story or poem. After reading, define them in your text for class discussion, quizzes, and test preparation. To understand literature, it is necessary that you ask yourself certain questions, such as "what is the theme of this story?" or "why does the author use this particular type of imagery?" You are not necessarily reading for pleasure--although it is sincerely hoped you will derive pleasure from your assignments--but for the development of critical analysis skills, so observe the author's style and intent carefully.

Short Stories/Novel

Theme - The idea or point of a story formulated as a generalization. In American literature, several themes are evident which reflect and define our society. The dominant ones might be innocence/experience, life/death, appearance/reality, free will/fate, madness/sanity, love/hate, society/individual, known/unknown. Themes may have a single, instead of a dual nature as well. The theme of a story may be a mid-life crisis, or imagination, or the duality of humankind (contradictions).

Character - Imaginary people created by the writer. Perhaps the most important element of literature.

• Protagonist - Major character at the center of the story.
• Antagonist - A character or force that opposes the protagonist.
• Minor character - 0ften provides support and illuminates the protagonist.
• Static character - A character who remains the same.
• Dynamic character - A character who changes in some important way.
• Characterization - The means by which writers reveal character.
• Explicit Judgment - Narrator gives facts and interpretive comment.
• Implied Judgment - Narrator gives description; reader make the judgment.

Look for: Connections, links, and clues between and about characters. Ask yourself what the function and significance of each character is. Make this determination based upon the character's history, what the reader is told (and not told), and what other characters say about themselves and others.

Plot - The arrangement of ideas and/or incidents that make up a story.

• Causality - One event occurs because of another event.
• Foreshadowing - A suggestion of what is going to happen.
• Suspense - A sense of worry established by the author.
• Conflict - Struggle between opposing forces.
• Exposition - Background information regarding the setting, characters, plot.
• Complication or Rising Action - Intensification of conflict.
• Crisis - Turning point; moment of great tension that fixes the action.
• Resolution/Denouement - The way the story turns out.

Structure - The design or form of the completed action. Often provides clues to character and action. Can even philosophically mirror the author's intentions, especially if it is unusual.

Look for: Repeated elements in action, gesture, dialogue, description, as well as shifts in direction, focus, time, place, etc.

Setting - The place or location of the action, the setting provides the historical and cultural context for characters. It often can symbolize the emotional state of characters.

Point of View - Again, the point of view can sometimes indirectly establish the author's intentions. Point of view pertains to who tells the story and how it is told.

• Narrator - The person telling the story.
• First-person - Narrator participates in action but sometimes has limited knowledge/vision.
• Objective - Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached observer). Does not assume character's perspective and is not a character in the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply the meaning.
• Omniscient - All-knowing narrator (multiple perspectives). The narrator takes us into the character and can evaluate a character for the reader (editorial omniscience). When a narrator allows the reader to make his or her own judgments from the action of the characters themselves, it is called neutral omniscience.
• Limited omniscient - All-knowing narrator about one or two characters, but not all.

Language and Style - Style is the verbal identity of a writer, oftentimes based on the author's use of diction (word choice) and syntax (the order of words in a sentence). A writer's use of language reveals his or her tone, or the attitude toward the subject matter.

Irony - A contrast or discrepancy between one thing and another.

• Verbal irony - We understand the opposite of what the speaker says.
• Irony of Circumstance or Situational Irony - When one event is expected to occur but the opposite happens. A discrepancy between what seems to be and what is.
• Dramatic Irony - Discrepancy between what characters know and what readers know.
• Ironic Vision - An overall tone of irony that pervades a work, suggesting how the writer views the characters.

Poetry

Allegory - A form of narrative in which people, places, and events seem to have hidden meanings. Often a retelling of an older story.

Connotation - The implied meaning of a word.

Denotation - The dictionary definition of a word.

Diction - Word choice and usage (for example, formal vs. informal), as determined by considerations of audience and purpose.

Figurative Language - The use of words to suggest meanings beyond the literal. There are a number of figures of speech. Some of the more common ones are:

• Metaphor - Making a comparison between unlike things without the use of a verbal clue (such as "like" or "as").
• Simile - Making a comparison between unlike things, using "like" or "as".
• Hyperbole - Exaggeration
• Personification - Endowing inanimate objects with human characteristics

Imagery - A concrete representation of a sense impression, a feeling, or an idea which appeals to one or more of our senses. Look for a pattern of imagery.

• Tactile imagery - sense of touch.
• Aural imagery - sense of hearing.
• Olfactory imagery - sense of smell.
• Visual imagery - sense of sight.
• Gustatory imagery - sense of taste.

Rhythm and Meter - Rhythm is the pulse or beat in a line of poetry, the regular recurrence of an accent or stress. Meter is the measure or patterned count of a poetry line (a count of the stresses we feel in a poem's rhythm). The unit of poetic meter in English is called a "foot," a unit of measure consisting of stressed and unstressed syllables. Ask yourself how the rhythm and meter affects the tone and meaning.

Sound - Do the words rhyme? Is there alliteration (repetition of consonants) or assonance (repetition of vowels)? How does this affect the tone?

Structure - The pattern of organization of a poem. For example, a sonnet is a 14-line poem usually written in iambic pentameter. Because the sonnet is strictly constrained, it is considered a closed or fixed form. An open or free form is a poem in which the author uses a looser form, or perhaps one of his or her own invention. It is not necessarily formless.

Symbolism - When objects or actions mean more than themselves.

Syntax - Sentence structure and word order.

Voice: Speaker and Tone - The voice that conveys the poem's tone; its implied attitude toward its subject.

Terms of Each Plot and Character in The Short Story “Quality” by John Galsworthy (1867-1933)

RAHMAT SETIAWAN

092154030 / ENGLISH LITERATURE B

INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

Terms of Each Plot and Character

In The Short Story “Quality”

By John Galsworthy

(1867-1933)

After reading the short story of Equality, we can imagine what the author writes and means. It can be exposed through the plots and characters told. The plot and characters that is showed are in a term strongly, it is so characteristic and influential with interested events. The plot that is made by John Galsworthy explores all of the important things, it belongs to characters, place of each events, time of happening, and cause-effect that is supported by acts of the each character. Plot is literary term for the events a story comprise, particularly as they relate to one another in a pattern, a sequence, through cause and effect, or by coincidence (2dix.com). It is the moment that is built of previously moment or the next moment. It means that the plot connects the cause moment and the effect moment. That is being with characters to do each event, each time, and each place. Whereas, character is the actor of the story, it can be person, animal, or thing (docstoc.com). Those are been in a term in a work, so does Quality.

Plot or the structural of action has been made by Galsworthy through the characters, events, and term of cause-effect. The first introducing is raised up by the narrator as the first person, refers to first line, “I knew HIM from the days of my extreme youth, because he made my father’s boot” character I refers to the narrator and HIM refers to the person that is immediately told, Mr. Gressler. He is boot maker from German. Mr. Gressler works at a tenement with his brother. At the time, the narrator is fourteen and he tells the Mr. Gressler as the person with red beard and stong, it refers to “He was a little as if made from leather, with his yellow crinkly face, and crinkly reddish hair and beard, and neat folds slanting down his cheeks to the corners of his mouth,” As far as this, the reader can follow the step of this introducing, who Mr. Gessler and the narrator are, how they age are. But the complication comes slowly when the narrator or the consumer cannot come to him very often. It can be looked at, “For it was not possible to go him very often-his boots lasted terribly, having something beyond the temporary-some, as it were, essence of boot stitched into him.” He will take the boots back if he can do nothing with the creaked boots it is not made by him instead. It is according to, “Mr. Gessler that last pair of town walking-boots creaked, you know.” But Mr. Gessler just says “Zend dem back!” He promise to repair it and to guarantee it if he can do nothing. Walking to the conflict when the narrator is coming again after ordered many pairs to Mr. Gessler but the situation has changed. The narrator has left him for nearly two years. It refers to, “They lasted more terribly than ever. And I was not able conscientiously to go to him for nearly two years.” We can imagine that Mr. Gessler can make good boots, in other hand it makes him lost the order in a long time. Mr. Gessler is also lost his brother, his other shop, and his hair has suddenly gone. “And he touched the top of his head, where the hair suddenly gone as thin as it had been on that of his poor brother. Galsworthy tries to show the age of Mr. Gessler at the time with flash back, “It was over a year before I was again in London...I had left a man of sixty I came back to one of seventy-five, pinched and tremulous...” The plot is set shuffle, the information of Mr. Gessler age is shown at the time when the narrator is coming back to London. How older Mr. Gessler at the time. The quality of his boots is also better than before, the time to make is faster, and the bill is same as usual, it is according to “How splendid your boots are!...I can make dem quickly; id is a slack dime...I had given those boots up when one evening they came, they best ever made me...I found his bill the amount was the same usual...He had never before sent it in till quarter day.” From those texts, the reader must be able to dramatize how good Mr. Gessler is. But it was the climax until the resolution is rising up when the narrator passing the little street a week later and knowing that Mr. Gassler has passed away by starving. Those shops have been taken over by new owner.

The story set the plot and the character in terms. It can be figured out by the steps that Galsworthy has written. From physical character of Mr. Gessler who has red beard, then it is changing into grey. After lift by the narrator in many years, he has been bold. So later he has been pinched worn out until a week later he passes away. So does in the events of informing the characters age. The narrator raises through introducing of fourteen and Mr. Gessler is about forty. It is until the narrator says that he has left Mr. Gessler when Mr. Gessler was sixty and knowing he has been seventy-five. The quality of Mr. Gessler’s boots is also shown from good to be more terribly than ever. Then it is better than ever until it is the best ever. Those all are made in faster time from long, longer and so quick made.

The Tone of Short Story “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid 1978

RAHMAT SETIAWAN

092154030

THE TONE OF SHORT STORY “GIRL”

BY JAMAICA KINCAID

1978

            In the story “Girl”, there is a tone which is as the view or the point from the reader. The tone in the story is about beautiful, which is to girl especially. Beautiful here means that to be a beautiful girl, a girl should have a special thing except the beauty of physical. It can be built from the attitude, behavior, clothing, and many more. It refers to the first part of the story ‘Wash the white clothes on Monday and put them on the stone heap; wash the color clothes on Tuesday and put them on the clothesline to dry; don’t walk barehead in the hot sun; cook pumpkin fritters in very hot sweat oil; soak your little clothes right after you take them off’. Those phrases are showing the works of a girl that needs patience while she does. It is a natural rule for a girl to do and nobody makes. Jamaica Kincaid tried to show that a girl can be a beautiful girl if she can make an impression. How a girl does something can show how the girl is, such as speaking, sewing, speaking, smiling, and so on. Not only those, the clothing is also makes an impression to her. Because, it can make a bad sense to the girl if doesn’t wear bad cloth. It refers to ‘On Sunday tries to walk like a lady and not like the slut you are so bent on becoming’. A girl will look beauty if she can place things in right places and times. But it is not only about placing; the things should be done carefully. So that is why, the girl will not get mistakes. The mistakes show the untidy, the improper, the indecent, the immoral, the messy, the sloppy, the merciless, and the careless. Those all, can crush the beauty of a girl. So important and needed the beautiful impression for a girl because a beautiful girl is a symbol of perfectness. Perfectness of the girl just rise after not doing any mistake and doing “the rule” of lady.

History of Schizophrenia

History of Schizophrenia

Introduction

The word schizophrenia is less then a 100 years old, but the disease itself is recognized as being thousands of years old. Documents revealed from ancient Egypt contained knowledge of symptoms relating to schizophrenia. Greek and Roman documents however contain no descriptions of the disorder. The disorder was first identified as a discrete mental illness by Dr. Emile Kraepelin in 1887. Dr. Kraepelin used the term "dementia praecox" for individuals who had symptoms that are now associated with schizophrenia. He was the first to make a distinction in the psychotic disorders between what he called dementia praecox and manic depression. Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was primarily a disease of the brain, and particularly a form of dementia.

The Swiss psychiatrist, Eugen Bleuler, coined the term, "schizophrenia" in 1911. He was also the first to describe the symptoms as "positive" or "negative." Bleuler changed the name to schizophrenia as it was obvious that Krapelin's name was misleading as the illness was not a dementia.   The word "schizophrenia" comes from the Greek roots schizo (split) and phrene (mind) to describe the fragmented thinking of people with the disorder. Since Bleuler's time, the definition of schizophrenia has continued to change, as scientists attempt to accurately define the different types of mental diseases. Both Bleuler and Kraepelin subdivided schizophrenia into categories, based on prominent symptoms and prognoses. Over the years, theorists have continued to attempt to classify the different types of schizophrenia. Five types are defined in the DSM-III: disorganized, catatonic, paranoid, residual, and undifferentiated. The first three categories were originally proposed by Kraepelin. Without knowing the exact causes of these diseases, scientists can only base their classifications on the observation that some symptoms tend to occur together.

Symptoms

Schizophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses. It is a severe, chronic, and disabling brain disease. Schizophrenia is often mistaken for multiple personalities, or dissociate identity disorder. Schizophrenia occurs when an individual splits off from reality and are unable to tell what is real and what is not real. It affects one percent of the population and affects men and women equally, but men tend to develop schizophrenia earlier in life. To be diagnosed as having schizophrenia, an individual must have several symptoms.

The symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, and abnormal speech. The delusions that occur are bizarre, false beliefs that seem real to the person, but in actuality do not exist. Another common symptom is delusions of persecution and grandeur, which involves incomplete lines of thought. Individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia either speak very little and have disorganized speech. They jump from one idea to another, repeating words, or making up completely new words.

There are several different types of schizophrenia. These include: paranoid, catatonic, disorganized, undifferentiated, and residual schizophrenia. Each has their own symptoms and tendencies as listed below:

1.      Catatonic type: Motor disturbances, stupor, negativism, rigidity, agitation, inability to take care of personal needs, decreased sensitivity to painful stimulus.

2.      Paranoid type: Delusional thoughts of persecution or grandeur, anxiety, anger, violence, aggressiveness

3.      Disorganized type: Incoherence, regressive behavior, flat effect, delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate laughter, repetitive mannerisms, social withdrawal

4.      Undifferentiated type: Patients may have symptoms of more than one subtype of schizophrenia.

5.      Residual type: Prominent symptoms of the illness have abated, but some symptoms, such as hallucinations and flat affect,   may still be present.

Treatment

As of yet, there are no defining medical tests for schizophrenia. The following factors may suggest a schizophrenia diagnosis, but do not confirm it: developmental background, genetic and family history, changes in functioning prior to illness, course of illness and duration of symptoms, and response to drug therapy. Historically treatment for schizophrenia was done through insulin shots or electroconvulsive therapy. These days different approaches are utilized with more positive results. The most common method for treating schizophrenia is antipsychotic medications.

The drugs that reduce the high level of neurological activity that leads to schizophrenia are called neuroleptics. Neuroleptics reduce brain activity by blocking the receptors so the dopamine cannot enter the receptor and reduces the sensitivity of the postsynaptic receptor. This in turn increases the levels of serotonin in the patient . Antipsychotic medications do not reduce all of the symptoms of schizophrenia unfortunately. Due to this psychotherapy, family therapy, and occupational training are used in combination with the drugs to get the individual to come back and lead normal lives

Prognosis for Recovery

    There are several different approaches to treating schizophrenia, but an individual with the illness is never fully cured.   Like many others, schizophrenia is an unfortunate disease. Even though there are many treatments and the affected people are still able to live some sort of normal life they will never be one hundred percent cured.   Schizophrenia is one of the most common psychological illnesses that effect people. However this is not a reason for schizophrenics to give up all hope. Even though the disorder can not be fully cured, it can be managed, and symptoms may decrease, or disappear all together. This of course depends on the individual suffering from schizophrenia willingness to take an aggressive stance with their disorder. Lying down and excepting their fate will not achieve success. Through therapy, drug therapy, and the trust of family or friends and individual can return to a life of normalcy. The only thing that can prevent this is not participating in their own treatment. Accepting that schizophrenia will continue to destroy their lives only continues the downward spiral of their lives. Through understanding and motivation to accept treatment for their schizophrenia, more and more patients are living functional lives. Even though these patients may never be cured, a recovery of their lives should be something they all should be striving for.

References:

National Alliance for the Mentally Ill

http://www.namiscc.org/index.htm

Schizophrenia.com

http://www.schizophrenia.com/index.php

Internet Mental Health

http://www.mentalhealth.com/dis/p20-ps01.html

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe, and disabling brain disorder that has affected people throughout history. The sufferers feel that everybody tries to read and threat his or her mind. So it make the sufferers are agitated. It influences the way they talk because they will think very carefully before talking, so you see them very quiet. Therefore, in families and society, they feel uncomfortable and so do the families and society. Most of the sufferers of Schizophrenia try to treat their self through the lives. Through it all, some researchers develop some treatments to the sufferers that may prevent and better treat the illness.

There are three kinds of symptoms of schizophrenia, positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive symptoms.

1.      Positive symptoms actually are usually seemed as “insanity” behaviors. It is divided into four types.

a)      The first one is Hallucinations. Hallucinations are things a person sees, hears, smells, or feels that no one else can see, hear, smell, or feel. “Voices” are the most common type of hallucination in schizophrenia. The voices talk about the behaviors, warnings, or something to do.

b)      The second one is Delusions. Delusions are false beliefs that are not part of the person’s culture and do not change. The sufferers believe the delusions even after other people prove that the beliefs are not true or logical. They may have paranoid delusions and it is called “delusions of persecution.”

c)      The third is Thought Disorder. It is unusual or dysfunctional ways of thinking. The sufferers talk illogically and garble. If they were asked to stop talking (Thought Blocking), they would say that the thought had been taken out of their head. Finally, they might make up meaningless words, or “neologisms (making new word)”

d)     The last one is Movement Disorders. It may appear as agitated body movements. A person with a movement disorder may repeat certain motions over and over. In the other extreme, a person may become catatonic.

2.      Negative symptoms have relationship to abnormal emotions and behaviors. The symptoms include the following:

a)      “Flat affect” (a person’s face does not move or he or she talks in a dull or monotonous voice)

b)      Lack of pleasure in everyday life

c)      Lack of ability to begin and sustain planned activities

d)     Speaking little, even when forced to interact.

3.      Cognitive symptoms are subtle. It often makes the life abnormal and can cause great emotional distress. It includes the following:

a)      Poor “executive functioning” (the ability to understand information and use it to make decisions)

b)      Trouble focusing or paying attention

c)      Problems with “working memory” (the ability to use information immediately after learning it).

Schizophrenia can affect either men or women. Hallucination and Delusion usually start between ages 16 and 30. Children rarely get Schizophrenia and people rarely get schizophrenia after 45. Teenagers are difficult to diagnose getting it because their common behaviors are same with the symptoms like withdrawing from others, an increase in unusual thoughts and suspicions, and a family history of psychosis. For young people who develop the disease, the stage, is called the “Prodromal” period.

People with schizophrenia are not usually violent but some symptoms are associated with violence, such as delusions of persecution. Substance abuse may also increase the chance a person will become violent. Most researchers do not believe that substance abuse causes schizophrenia. Substance abuse can make treatment for schizophrenia less effective. Some drugs, like marijuana and stimulants such as amphetamines or cocaine, may make symptoms worse. The relationship between smoking and schizophrenia is complex. Smoking may make antipsychotic drugs less effective. Addiction to nicotine is the most common form of substance abuse in people with schizophrenia. They are addicted 75 to 90 percent vs. 25 to 30 percent.

Actually, Schizophrenia is caused by several factors:

1.      The first is genes and environment; Schizophrenia is only 1 percent in the world, 10 percent is inherited from families and the highest risk is from an identical twin with Schizophrenia, it is about 40 to 65 percent. Beside the genes factor, many environmental factors may be involved, such as exposure to viruses or malnutrition before birth, problems during birth, and other not yet known psychosocial factors.

2.      The second is different brain chemistry and structure. Imbalance brain’s chemicals like neurotransmitters (substances that allow brain cells to communicate with each other), dopamine, and glutamate, plays a role in schizophrenia. Some experts think problems during brain development before birth may lead to faulty connections and it will show in the puberty because major change happens here and could trigger psychotic symptoms.

Because the causes of schizophrenia are still unknown, treatments focus on eliminating the symptoms of the disease. Treatments include antipsychotic medications and various psychosocial treatments.

1.      Antipsychotic medications have been available since the mid-1950’s. The older types are called conventional or “typical” antipsychotics. Some of the more commonly used typical medications include Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), Haloperidol (Haldol), Perphenazine (Etrafon, Trilafon), and Fluphenazine (Prolixin).

2.      “Atypical” Antipsychotics developed in the 1990’s. One of these medications, Clozapine (Clozaril) is an effective medication that treats psychotic symptoms, hallucinations, and breaks with reality. However, Clozapine can sometimes cause a serious problem called Agranulocytosis (a loss of the white blood cells that help a person fight infection). Besides that, Clozapine is potentially helpful for people who do not respond to other antipsychotic medications. The other medications include Risperidone (Risperdal), Olanzapine (Zyprexa), Quetiapine (Seroquel), Ziprasidone (Geodon), Aripiprazole (Abilify), and Paliperidone (Invega). People who are taking antipsychotics have some side effects like Drowsiness, Dizziness when changing positions, Blurred vision, Rapid heartbeat, Sensitivity to the sun, Skin rashes, and menstrual problems for women. It also disturbs metabolism and risks of getting cholesterol, suggested to check the weight, glucose levels, and lipid levels to a doctor. Typical antipsychotic medications can cause side effects related to physical movement, such as Rigidity, Persistent muscle spasms, Tremors, and Restlessness. Long-term use of typical antipsychotic medications may lead to a condition called Tardive Dyskinesia (TD) and it causes muscle movements a person cannot control. Therefore, Antipsychotics is usually in pill or liquid form and shots once or twice a month.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia may have a relapse and get worse. Usually, relapses happen when people stop taking their medication without recommendation of the doctor. The sufferers should be aware with the other medicines because Antipsychotics can produce unpleasant or dangerous side effects when taken with certain medications. To find out more about how antipsychotics work, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) funded a study called CATIE (Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness). The study found the older typical antipsychotic Perphenazine (Trilafon) that worked as well as the newer, atypical medications.

Psychosocial treatments also can help people with schizophrenia that is already stabilized on antipsychotic medication. There are six psychosocial treatments:

a)      Illness management skill, it giving the knowledge all about Schizophrenia, and it makes the patients can learn to prevent relapses.

b)      Integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse. When schizophrenia treatment programs and drug treatment programs are used together, patients get better results.

c)      Rehabilitation. It emphasizes social and vocational training to help people with schizophrenia function better in their communities.

d)     Family education. Family should know about the disease because after discharging from hospital they have to treat.

e)      Cognitive behavioral therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on thinking and behavior. The therapist teaches people with schizophrenia how to test the reality of their thoughts and perceptions, how to “not listen” to their voices, and how to manage their symptoms overall.

f)       Self-help groups. It is not included the professional therapy, people in self-help groups know that others are facing the same problems, which can help everyone feel less isolated.

People with schizophrenia may not think they need help because they believe their delusions or hallucinations are real. Family and friend should give support, and if they were dangerous, just call the police to take them to hospital. The doctor will need some information from family and friends to help a mental health of the sufferers. After he or she leaves the hospital, family and friends can help for the treatment. If patients stop taking their medication or stop going to follow-up appointments, their symptoms likely will return. Sometimes symptoms become severe for people who stop their medication and treatment. Giving them some supports about life is one solution.

The outlook for people with schizophrenia continues to improve. Although there is no cure, treatments that work well are available. Many people with schizophrenia improve enough to lead independent, satisfying lives.